PROTECTION OF AUSTRALIA'S FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS

             In the early 1970s Australia (and many other nations) made commitments to protect its important and representative ecosystems. The two key documents in this regard are the United Nations Stockholm Declaration, and the Ramsar Wetlands Convention. These commitments were later reinforced through the 1982 World Charter for Nature (an agreement by the UN General Assembly) and the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity – one of the most widely supported of all international agreements. The CBD is particularly important as national programs continue to be guided by resolutions of the Conference of the Parties.

               Under the guidance of these agreements, Australia and other nations commenced programs aimed at the protection of biodiversity in terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems. These programs had two main thrusts. First, the single most important strategy world wide is the creation of networks of protected areas – permanent reserves where at least some threats to biodiversity are effectively managed or eliminated. However, it was immediately recognised that such reserves could never contain more than a small percentage (10 or 20 percent at most) of the world’s ecosystems and habitats, so the second major program is to protect as far as practical biodiversity across broad landscapes. This is achieved through a variety of legislative and incentive programs (pollution controls and land use planning, for example).

           My work since the year 2000 has focused on evaluating just how effective Australia’s programs have been in the areas of protecting aquatic biodiversity.

Considerable progress was made in the area of terrestrial biodiversity in the 1980s, as the Commonwealth Government, in cooperation with the States, developed the National Reserve System. In the 1990s attention moved to marine ecosystems, as Australia commenced a program to develop ‘comprehensive, adequate and representative’ protection for marine ecosystems through a network of marine protected areas in Commonwealth and State waters. Australian scientists, like Jamie Kirkpatrick and Bob Pressey, became world figures through their work on the theory and practice of systematic conservation planning (see the landmark paper by Margules and Pressey).

              However little systematic attention was given to freshwater ecosystems. Each Australian State did declare reserves under the Ramsar Convention, however these were not developed under a systematic national plan, and to this day no national evaluation has been undertaken to identify areas which meet the Ramsar criteria. The Ramsar reserves which were developed in response to local initiatives do protect important lentic ecosystems, however water of course moves through reserve boundaries, and all too often no management steps were taken to protect the water which sustains these ecosystems. In many cases rivers and streams flowing towards the reserves where dammed and harvested, and groundwaters drained.

            The terrestrial NRS reserves were often established with little regard for the conservation needs of riverine ecosystems. Today, four decades after Australia’s initial commitments, there has been no conservation status assessment to determine whether riverine ecosystems are adequately protected within terrestrial reserves. Dr Janet Stein of the Australian National University has recently published an analysis which found that of Australia’s 2,900,000 kilometers of mapped streams, only 12,334 km, or less than half of one percent, fell into what might be described as a “fully protected” category within terrestrial reserves. Her paper concludes: “Owing to a variety of pervasive threats, a more comprehensive conservation status assessment of these ecosystems would undoubtedly yield an even more pessimistic result. Such an assessment is recommended”.

                It should be noted that New Zealand has undertaken a comprehensive national assessment of its freshwater ecosystems. It should also be noted however, that in New Zealand, as in Australia, action to protect freshwater on the ground has lagged far behind both policy and science.

One of Australia’s best known freshwater conservation biologists is Professor Richard Kingsford of the University of New South Wales. In 2006 he and fifty other prominent scientists published a paper calling for urgent action. Unfortunately, this call remains as urgent today as it was then:

The need to establish comprehensive and representative freshwater protected areas is urgent, given increasing concerns about limited water availability for Australia’s cities, industries and agriculture – and the ongoing degradation of aquatic ecosystems. This should be accompanied by effective land and water management that pays more than lip service to the environmental requirements of aquatic ecosystems. State governments should act with the support and collaboration of the Commonwealth.

              The most urgent initiative appears to be a national reserve system ‘gap analysis’ which would identify those ecosystems most at risk. A comprehensive national assessment of the conservation status of freshwater ecosystems should be undertaken immediately. Such a study would provide a platform for the systematic expansion of the nation’s freshwater protected areas, as well as a catalyst for innovative ‘bottom-up’ conservation approaches driven by local stakeholders.

                   In other countries there have been important practical initiatives with regard to protecting river and stream ecosystems. Canada’s ‘Heritage Rivers’ and the USA’s ‘Wild and Scenic Rivers’ provide important models for other countries. However in Australia, Victoria’s ‘Heritage River’ management plans, prepared over a decade ago, were never finalized or implemented. The current Queensland State government, newly elected, came to power on a platform which included the roll-back of designated ‘Wild Rivers’. In the marine area, newly declared Commonwealth protected areas are a travesty of the original vision on which the program was founded in the 1990s.

                  We live in disturbing times. The sixth major global biodiversity extinction event, this time under the hand of mankind, has commenced, with the science increasingly clear. The threats to biodiversity from escalating inroads into natural habitats, as well as the effects of a warming climate and increasingly acidic oceans, are again clear from a scientific perspective. Yet, in Australia as globally, politicians, elected on short-term policy platforms, seem unable to understand, let alone act on, the damage which confronts us, damage which is already undermining the life support systems of Planet Earth.

Reference: 

http://www.globalwaterforum.org/2012/11/13/protection-of-australias-freshwater-ecosystems/

MORE BIODIVERSITY MEANS BETTER WATER QUALITY AND LESS POLLUTION

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Biodiversity improves water quality and helps ecosystems to withstand pressures from pollution, according to a new study published in the journal Nature.

           The new study is the first to rigorously show how biodiversity improves water quality and, according to Brad Cardinale, an ecologist at the University of Michigan, how it can control a service vital to humanity, such as purifying water of pollutants.  
           Cardinale examined how the number of algae species in a habitat affects water quality by using artificial streams in a lab, measuring the speed at which the pollutant nitrate is removed from the water. The study looked at the eight most abundant species of freshwater algae in North American streams, each with different adaptations to water flow and other conditions.    
           By intentionally mimicking how streams naturally vary along their lengths, by modeling features such as riffles, pools and floods, Cardinale found that each species established its own niche in the model streams, and as these niches filled up, the stream became a better bio filter for pollutants. Conversely, by removing niche opportunities, Cardinale was able to demonstrate that biodiversity decreased, typically leaving just a single species, which no longer had an impact on nitrogen uptake. 
           His results indicated that in habitats containing a mixture of eight species, the organisms removed nitrate up to 4.5 times faster than they did in streams with just one species. 
          Essentially, Cardinale was able to model the effect that loss of biodiversity and species extinction may have on key ecosystems and services, such as fresh water. Speaking about the results in a press release for the Natural Science Foundation, he says, ''It's just one study, but its part of a growing body of scientific evidence that is now clearly showing that the modern mass extinction of species is going to affect humanity in some big and important ways.''  
           In the study, Cardinale demonstrates exactly why streams that have more species are better at removing these nutrient pollutants from the water, confirming that niche differences among species provides the mechanism for biodiversity's cleansing ability. 
           Cardinale believes his research has interesting implications for conservation ''One of the obvious implications of the study is that if we want to enhance water quality in large bodies of water, like the Chesapeake Bay watershed or around the Great Lakes, then the conservation of natural biodiversity in our streams would offer, among other benefits, help in cleaning them up.''

 

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http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110406/full/news.2011.216.html

ACID RAINS IMPACT ON LAKES, STREAMS, WETLANDS, AND OTHER AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS

          

                                                         

                               How Does Acid Rain Affect Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms

 

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Acid rain describes any form of precipitation with high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry material that settle to Earth. (http://environment.nationalgeographic.co.uk/environment/global-warming/acid-rain-overview/)

Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some chemicals that can cause acid rain, but most acid rain falls because of human activities. The biggest culprit is the burning of fossil fuels by coal-burning power plants, factories, and automobiles.

          When humans burn fossil fuels, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are released into the atmosphere. These chemical gases react with water, oxygen, and other substances to form mild solutions of sulfuric and nitric acid. Winds may spread these acidic solutions across the atmosphere and over hundreds of miles. When acid rain reaches Earth, it flows across the surface in runoff water, enters water systems, and sinks into the soil.

                Acid rain has many ecological effects, but none is greater than its impact on lakes, streams, wetlands, and other aquatic environments. Acid rain makes waters acidic and causes them to absorb the aluminum that makes its way from soil into lakes and streams. This combination makes waters toxic to crayfish, clams, fish, and other aquatic animals.

              Some species can tolerate acidic waters better than others. However, in an interconnected ecosystem, what impacts some species eventually impacts many more throughout the food chain—including non-aquatic species such as birds.

           Acid rain also damages forests, especially those at higher elevations. It robs the soil of essential nutrients and releases aluminum in the soil, which makes it hard for trees to take up water.  Trees' leaves and needles are also harmed by acids.

           The effects of acid rain, combined with other environmental stressors, leave trees and plants less able to withstand cold temperatures, insects, and disease. The pollutants may also inhibit trees' ability to reproduce. Some soils are better able to neutralize acids than others. In areas where the soil's "buffering capacity" is low, the harmful effects of acid rain are much greater.

           The only way to fight acid rain is by curbing the release of the pollutants that cause it. This means burning fewer fossil fuels. Many governments have tried to curb emissions by cleaning up industry smokestacks and promoting alternative fuel sources. These efforts have met with mixed results. But even if acid rain could be stopped today, it would still take many years for its harmful effects to disappear.

           Individuals can also help prevent acid rain by conserving energy. The less electricity people use in their homes, the fewer chemicals power plants will emit. Vehicles are also major fossil fuel users, so drivers can reduce emissions by using public transportation, carpooling, biking, or simply walking wherever possible.

          

CARBON DIOXIDE FROM WATER POLLUTION, AS WELL AS AIR POLLUTION, MAY ADVERSELY IMPACT OCEANS

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) released into the oceans as a result of water pollution by nutrients -- a major source of this greenhouse gas that gets little public attention -- is enhancing the unwanted changes in ocean acidity due to atmospheric increases in CO₂. The changes may already be impacting commercial fish and shellfish populations, according to new data and model predictions published September 19 in ACS's journal, Environmental Science & Technology.

William G. Sunda and Wei-Jun Cai point out that atmospheric levels of CO₂, the main greenhouse gas, have increased by about 40 percent since the Industrial Revolution due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use changes. The oceans absorb about one-third of that CO₂, which results in acidification from the formation of carbonic acid. However, pollution of ocean water with nutrient runoff from fertilizer, human and animal waste, and other sources also is adding CO₂ via the biological breakdown of organic matter formed during algal blooms, which also depletes oxygen from the water.

Sunda and Cai developed a computer model to project the likely consequences of ocean acidification from this process both currently and with future increases in atmospheric CO₂. The model predicted that this process will interact synergistically with the acidification of seawater from rising atmospheric CO₂ in seawater at intermediate to higher temperatures. Together, the two ocean processes are predicted to substantially increase the acidity of ocean waters, enough to potentially impact commercial fisheries in coastal regions receiving nutrient inputs, such as the northern Gulf of Mexico and Baltic Sea. Clams, oysters, scallops and mussels could be the most heavily impacted, the report indicates.

The authors acknowledge funding from the National Science Foundation, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

 

Journal Reference:

William G. Sunda, Wei-Jun Cai. Eutrophication Induced CO2-Acidification of Subsurface Coastal Waters: Interactive Effects of Temperature, Salinity, and AtmosphericPCO2. Environmental Science & Technology, 2012; : 120919060032001 DOI: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es300626f

WATER POLLUTION AND GENETIC MUTATION OF LIVE ORGANISMS

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High level of pollution of ground waters in the State of Punjab in the north of India led to a genetic mutation of people. This fact was revealed during the research carried out recently, reports "BBC" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7119780.stm). The scientists, who were collecting a scientific material within two years, ascertain that poisonous pesticides and heavy metals got to a food chain. Due to this in Punjab the percentage of children with congenital ugliness sharply increased, the cancer cases considerably increased, many inhabitants had problems with kidneys. Report made by specialists of Chandigarh Institute of medical education, indicates communication between pollution of water and DNA mutation of people. 

During research scientists analyzed composition of ground waters, liquid industrial wastes and tap water. It appeared that 80 % of samples of ground waters contain mercury in the quantity much more exceeding norm. 70 % of samples of industrial drains showed presence of arsenic. This chemical element dangerous to the human being was found also in ground waters and even in tap water — his presence is revealed in 57,7 % and 50 % is exemplary respectively. In drainage watercourse of some cities (Ludhiana, Amritsar) a large amount of pesticides has been revealed. During research of samples of the blood taken from people living in these areas, the mutation of DNA was noted in 65 % of cases. Authors of the report specify that responsibility for environmental pollution lies not only at the industrial enterprises. Partly, this is farmers fault, who use pesticides in excessive quantities. Now experts develop recommendations how to protect the population from dangerous chemicals. For now scientists advise to carry out permanent monitoring to keep eye on water quality and a condition of sewer system. Today pollution of water gets really catastrophic scales. It is getting more and more difficult to receive water of acceptable purity for drink. Let's consider some of the most dangerous types of pollution. 

Chemical pollution of water proceeds both from the industrial enterprises, and from the household waste billion tons of which are scattered on all surface not only a land, but also oceans. Organic synthetic materials, for example, various plastic, paints, the polymeric fibers which washed away from fields or pesticides which have been thrown out behind worthlessness, that some large agrarian holdings so like to abuse, which are using for impregnation of wooden designs and many other substances which aren't capable to biological degradation, but can join in a metabolism process of live cells, acting there as catalysts of pathological exchange processes. Some chemical substances causing pollution of water, can be processed by live organisms, but often in such compounds which are much more toxic for biological organisms, than initial. One of them are authentic carcinogens (the substances causing formation of cancer tumors), others possess strongly pronounced teratogenic and mutagen properties (that is cause congenital anomalies of development or a mutation of biological organisms). 

Such influence is inherent in halogenated hydrocarbons, polychromatic compounds and phenols. Water pollution by nitrites and nitrates, most dangerously for children, who are in age category up to twelve years. In their stomachs acid isn't developed enough to suppress those bacteria which process nitrates in more toxic nitrites. But this problem concerns not only children, such nitro compounds are formed in certain conditions even in stomachs of adult people and cause the general poisoning. At such poisonings of newborn children, methemoglobinemia disease, calling also "blue baby syndrome" (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_baby_syndrome) is developing, at this disease erythrocytes lose ability to oxygen transfer, the outcome of this pathology can be lethal. The reasons of progressing of cancer diseases can become benzole and trychlorethylene and even asbestos. If lead gets into organism it can lead to serious neurological pathologies, especially children suffer from it. Also water is get polluted by chlorine and its compounds, which is generally applies for water cleaning, but destroying microorganisms, at the same time, sate the water with dangerous chlororganical compounds.  Due to chlorine, water also gains unpleasant taste and loses transparency. And in that case when such compounds get into an organism of the pregnant woman, they can cause the heaviest congenital defects of a fetus, such, as heart and brain anomalies. From manganese and iron water gets blackish or brownish shades, the taste become worse. 

Long-term using of such water contributes to development of blood and liver diseases, also emergence of heart attacks. It is time for people to think of their behavior, to stop jeer at our planet, for it can strongly reduce such polluting factor, as the mankind, with one insignificant movement in planetary scale, for example, eruption of a large volcano or emergence of a new virus. People need to fall in love with the nature, and she will render a hundred times.

WORLD FAMOUS GREAT LAKES

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More than 12 thousand years ago Europe and North America were ice deserts.  The woods, didn't rustle, the rivers, didn't flow. Ice laid from the horizon to the horizon. Huge blocks of ice, moving to the south, swept away everything on the way, pulled down the mountains, moving titanic stones and ploughed deep hollows of the improbable sizes. When the glacier receded, on its borders remained so-called moraines, borders from stones, sand, gravel.

The basin of the Great Lakes was formed at the time of ice age. When the glacier started to thaw, behind these blockages in deepening where ice laid, the lakes have arisen.

Now on the USA and Canada boundary are five big lakes, connected with each other by the short rivers, forming together the biggest congestion of fresh water on Earth. Lake Erie, lake Huron, lake Michigan, lake Ontario, lake Superior. Common area of these lakes, are 246.000 km². When glaciers receded, lakes received a drain to the Atlantic Ocean through St. Laurent’s river. On coast of these lakes situated the largest industrial port cities of the USA and Canada. The basin of the Great Lakes – one of the largest water catchment system on a planet; the pool contains 18 % of stocks of fresh water. Due to very strong maintenance of this pool, by the USA and Canada, pollution of surface and underground water has began. Oxygen level in the lakes decrease considerably, the amount of mercury and various poisonous substances exceeded limits and this became the reason of mass death of fishes.

The biggest part of pollutants was dumped into the Great Lakes. Believing that the ecological system of lakes is capable for self-recreation, throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, lakes were often used as sewage, rubbish pits.

Especially clear such "destination" of the lake, became noticeable with rapid growth of the industry and the population of the cities. The polluted sewage water, corpses of the died animals rather often were dumped to the river, it was distinctive feature of that time. People didn't bare in mind that the river flows further and, respectively, along on a river course, water already will be polluted or poisoned. This kind of treatment of unique ecological system of the Great Lakes started to change in the 20th century. Change in that relation happened due to the people who realized and estimated importance of availability of pure fresh water and understood, how water can influence health (rendering both positive, and a negative effect). However, owing to rapid development of the industry and negligent attitude of many people, polluted became not only the Great Lakes, but also the adjacent rivers, and also inflows of lakes. On account of such amount of pollutants, Lake Erie became practically "dead". But already since the end of 1980 it was possible to reach reduction of volume of toxic substances for 82 %, and in a consequence of it declared earlier «the dead lake» became the world's largest area of production of a perch. But even such large reduction didn't give completely desirable result. Toxic substances arrived to these lakes together with sewage and acid rains in a very big volume. It also became the reason that Canada was the first who signed the Kyoto Protocol on regulation of emissions in the atmosphere of green house gases for the industrial enterprises. But despite this according to experts, the Great Lakes, which remain the main source of fresh water in Canada, could face other environmental problems.

So, a global warming can cause reduction of lakes level on 1 m by the middle of the XXI century, what can lead to serious ecological consequences. Shortage of water can raise the question about necessity of a transfer of a part of a rivers drain or fencing of lake waters that creates threat to steady use of water resources. Experts forecasted, that frequency of large floods which occurred earlier to periodicity of 1 time in 500 years, within the XXI century will increase in 10 times. Deficiency of water in the USA and Canada already started. People in America for irrigation of the territories were using underground waters. Reduction of underground water stocks involves increase of water consumption from superficial sources what the Great Lakes are, in particular. At the same time sharply growth of the cities and an intensification of agriculture led to large-scale growth of excess of pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides and other chemical preparations which in turn a direct or indirect way get to the Great Lakes. In additives to it on coast of lakes there are largest port cities as Chicago and Toronto. It is also one of significant reasons of pollution of lakes, as large port always dense populated and as we know the more people, the garbage they produce. Moreover, during traffic of all boats and ships chance of leakage of petrol and others combustible to these lakes is increase.

Deterioration of characteristic of water of lakes as a result of activity of the human being, forced him to find a way of improvement of lakes. In this sense the history of Great American Lakes is indicative. Its condition have been improved as a result of the carried-out events, but it is quite early to speak about good ecological condition of these lakes, as this program are expected to continue for several decades.

              We must take care of lakes, since they are integral part of a landscape and live cell of nature. What beauty has given to us by these lakes!  And how much our nature would paled if these lakes suddenly disappeared?!

SEWAGE WATER CLEANING METHODS

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Rivers and other water reservoirs have their own natural self-cleaning process. However it proceeds slowly. While industrial and domestic waste, were not severe, rivers can cope with it. In our industrial century due to sharp increase of waste, rivers cannot manage such significant pollution. The necessity of clearing sewage water and utilizing them has arisen.

Cleaning of sewage water is very difficult process. In this case, like as in other productions we have 2 products: raw material (sewage water) and product (clean water).

Methods of cleaning can be divided into mechanical, chemical, physicochemical and biological process. When all these methods apply together, the process is called combined. The way to choose the best method is determined by character and degree of harmful substances.

Essence of mechanical method consists of cleaning sewage water from solids by settling and filtration. Coarsely dispersed particles depend on their sizes are caught by grids, sieves, sand catchers and septic tank. Surface water is cleaned by oil traps, oil collector and clarifiers. Mechanical refinement allows allocate from domestic sewage water up to 65-70% of insoluble substances and from industrial up to 95%. Many of these substances are used in manufacture processes as valuable addition.

Chemical method consists of adding different chemicals reagents into polluted water, which enter into reaction with pollutants and precipitate them in the form of insoluble additions. By chemical method it is possible to achieve decreasing of insoluble substances up to 95% and soluble up to 25%.

By using physiochemical method, thinly dispersed and solute substances are removed and also organic and poorly oxidize substances are destroyed. From all physicochemical method the most applicable ones are coagulation, oxidation, sorption, extraction and etc.  Electrolysis also is widespread. This method, also consist of destroying organic substances in sewage water and extraction of metals, acids and other inorganic substances. 

Electrolytic cleaning is carried out in special constructions - electrolyzer. Sewage treatment by means of electrolysis is effective at the lead and copper enterprises, in paint and varnish and some other fields of the industry.

The polluted sewage clears also by means of ultrasound, ozone, ion-exchanging pitches and a high pressure, cleaning by a chlorination way well proved as well.

Precipitation of domestic and industrial sewage in some industries is good fertilizer and is used in agriculture.